Organizational change Essay Example for Free

Organizational change Essay Organizational change is an ongoing process with important implications for organizational effectiveness. An organization and its members must be constantly on the alert for changes from within the organization and from the outside environment, and they must learn how to adjust to change quickly and effectively. Organizational change is the movement of an organization away from its present state and toward some future state to increase its effectiveness. Forces for organizational change include competitive forces; economic, political, and global forces; demographic and social forces; and ethical forces. Organizations are often reluctant to change because resistance to change at the organization, group, and individual levels has given rise to organizational inertia. Sources of organization-level resistance to change include power and conflict, differences in functional orientation, mechanistic structure, and organizational culture. Sources of group-level resistance to change include group norms, group cohesiveness, and groupthink and escalation of commitment. Sources of individual-level resistance to change include uncertainty and insecurity, selective perception and retention, and habit. According to Lewin’s force-field theory of change, organizations are balanced between forces pushing for change and forces resistant to change. To get an organization to change, managers must find a way to increase the forces for change, reduce resistance to change, or do both simultaneously. Types of change fall into two broad categories: evolutionary and revolutionary. The main instruments of evolutionary change are sociotechnical systems theory, total quality management, and the development of flexible workers and work teams. The main instruments of revolutionary change are reengineering, restructuring, and innovation. Often, the revolutionary types of change that result from restructuring and reengineering are necessary only because an organization and its managers ignored or were unaware of changes in the environment and did not make incremental changes as needed. Action research is a strategy that managers can use to plan the change process. The main steps in action research are (a) diagnosis and analysis of the organization, (b) determining the desired future state, (c) implementing action, (d) evaluating the action, and (e) institutionalizing action research. Organizational development (OD) is a series of techniques and methods to increase the adaptability of organizations. OD techniques can be used to overcome resistance to change and to help the organization to change itself. OD techniques for dealing with resistance to change include education and communication, participation and empowerment, facilitation, bargaining and negotiation, manipulation, and coercion. OD techniques for promoting change include, at the individual level, counseling, sensitivity training, and process consultation; at the group level, team building and intergroup training; and at the organizational level, organizational confrontation meetings. CHAPTER OUTLINE 10. 1 What Is Organizational Change? Organizational change is the process by which organizations move from their current or present state to some desired future state to increase their effectiveness. An organization in decline may need to restructure its competences and resources to improve its fit with a changing environment. Even thriving, high-performing organizations such as Google, Apple, and Facebook need to continuously change the way they operate over time to meet ongoing challenges. Targets of Change Organizational change includes changes in four areas: 1. Human resources are an organization’s most important asset. Because these skills and abilities give an organization a competitive advantage, organizations must continually monitor their structures to find the most effective way of motivating and organizing human resources to acquire and use their skills. Changes made in human resources include investment in training, socializing employees, changing norms to motivate a diverse workforce, monitoring promotion and reward systems, and changing top management. 2. Each organizational function needs to develop procedures that allow it to manage the particular environment it faces. Crucial functions grow in importance while those whose usefulness is declining shrink. Thus, key functions grow in importance. Organizations can change structure, culture, and technology to improve the value created by functions. 3 Organizational change often involves changing the relationships between people and functions to increase their ability to create value. 10. 2 Forces for and Resistance to Organizational Change Forces for Change If managers are slow to respond to the forces of change, the organization will lag behind its competitors and its effectiveness will be compromised. (Refer to Figure 10. 1) Competitive forces spur change, because unless an organization matches or surpasses its competitors it will not survive. Managing change is crucial when competing for customers. To lead on the dimensions of efficiency or quality, an organization must constantly adopt the latest technology as it becomes available. To lead on the dimension of innovation and obtain a technological advantage over competitors, a company must possess skills in managing the process of innovation. Economic, political, and global forces, such as the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) or other economic unions, are significant forces of change. The European Union (EU) includes over 27 members eager to take advantage of a large protected market. Global challenges facing organizations include the need to change an organizational structure to allow expansion into foreign markets, the need to adapt to a variety of national cultures, and the need to help expatriate managers adapt to the economic, political, and cultural values of the countries in which they are located. Demographic and social forces include an increasingly diverse workforce. Changes in the demographic characteristics of the workforce require managers to change their styles of managing all employees and to learn how to understand, supervise, and motivate diverse members effectively. Many workers want to balance work and leisure. Managers need to abandon stereotypes and accept the importance of equity in the recruitment and promotion of new hires. Ethical forces such as increasing government, political, and social demands for more responsible and honest corporate behavior are compelling organizations to promote ethical behavior. Many companies have created the position of ethics officer. If organizations operate in countries that pay little attention to human rights or to the well-being of organizational members, they have to learn how to change these standards and to protect their overseas employees. Resistances to Change Resistance to change lowers an organization’s effectiveness and reduces its chances of survival. Resistances or impediments to change that cause inertia are found at the organization, group, and individual levels. (Refer to Figure 10. 1) Organization-Level Resistance to Change Power and conflict: When change causes power struggles and organizational conflict, an organization is likely to resist it. If change benefits one function at the expense of another, conflict impedes the change process. In the old IBM, for example, managers of its mainframe computer division fought off attempts to redirect IBM’s resources to produce the PCs that customers wanted in order to preserve their own power. Differences in functional orientation: This means that different functions and divisions often see the source of a problem differently because they see an issue or problem primarily from their own viewpoint. This tunnel vision increases organizational inertia. Mechanistic structure: Mechanistic structures are more resistant to change. People who work within a mechanistic structure are expected to act in certain ways and do not develop the capacity to adjust their behavior to changing conditions. A mechanistic structure typically develops as an organization grows and is a principal source of inertia, especially in large organizations. The extensive use of mutual adjustment and decentralized authority in an organic structure makes it less resistant to change. Organizational culture: Organizational culture, values, and norms cause resistance to change. If organizational change disrupts taken-for-granted values and norms and forces people to change what they do and how they do it, an organization’s culture will cause resistance to change. Group-Level Resistance to Change Many groups develop strong informal norms that specify appropriate and inappropriate behaviors and govern the interactions between group members. Often, change alters task and role relationships in a group; when it does, it disrupts group norms and the informal expectations that group members have of one another. As a result, members of a group may resist change because a new set of norms must be developed to meet the needs of the new situation. Group cohesiveness, the attractiveness of a group to its members, also affects group performance. A highly cohesive group may resist attempts by management to change what it does or even who is a member of the group. Groupthink and escalation of commitment also make changing a group’s behavior very difficult. Individual-Level Resistance to Change People tend to resist change because they feel uncertain and insecure about what its outcome will be. Selective perception and retention suggest that people perceive information consistent with their views. If change doesn’t benefit them, they do not endorse it. People’s preference for familiar actions and events is a further impediment to change. Lewin’s Force-Field Theory of Change Force-field theory is a theory of organizational change that argues that two sets of opposing forces within an organization determine how change will take place. When the forces are evenly balanced, the organization is in a state of inertia and does not change. To get an organization to change, managers must find a way to increase the forces for change, reduce resistance to change, or do both simultaneously. Any of these strategies will overcome inertia and cause an organization to change. (Refer to Figure 10. 2) Managerial Implications Managers must continuously monitor the environment to identify the forces for change. They must analyze how the change will affect the organization and determine which type of change to pursue. 10. 3 Evolutionary and Revolutionary Change in Organizations Evolutionary change refers to change that is gradual, incremental, and specifically focused. It adds small adjustments to strategy and structure to handle environmental changes. Sociotechnical systems theory, total quality management, and the creation of empowered, flexible work groups are three instruments of evolutionary change that organizations use in their attempt to make incremental improvements in the way work gets done. Revolutionary change refers to change that is sudden, drastic, and organization-wide. It has repercussions at all levels in the organization—corporate, divisional, functional, group, and individual. Three ways to implement revolutionary change are reengineering, restructuring, and innovation. Developments in Evolutionary Change: Sociotechnical Systems Theory Sociotechnical systems theory is a theory that proposes the importance of changing role and task or technical relationships to increase organizational effectiveness. It emerged from a study of changing work practices in the British coal-mining industry. The socio-technical systems theory argues that managers need to fit or jointly optimize the workings of the technical and social systems. A poor fit between an organization’s technology and social system leads to failure, but a close fit leads to success. When managers change task and role relationships, they must recognize the need to adjust the technical and social systems gradually so group norms and cohesiveness are not disrupted. By taking this gradual approach, an organization can avoid the group-level resistance to change. Researchers suggest that a team-oriented system promotes values that enhance efficiency and product quality. Total quality management uses sociotechnical systems theory. Total Quality Management Total quality management (TQM) is a technique developed by W. Edwards Deming to continuously improve the effectiveness of flexible work teams. It was embraced by Japanese companies after World War II. Changes frequently inspired by TQM include altering the design or type of machines used to assemble products and reorganizing the sequence of activities—either within or between functions—necessary to provide a service to a customer. Changing cross-functional relationships to help improve quality is important in TQM. The changes associated with TQM are changes in task, role, and group relationships. Implementing a TQM program is not always easy because it requires workers and managers to adopt new ways of viewing their roles in an organization. Managers must be willing to decentralize control of decision making, empower workers, and assume the role of facilitator rather than supervisor. The â€Å"command and control† model gives way to an â€Å"advise and support† model. Flexible Workers and Flexible Work Teams In implementing socio-technical systems theory and TQM, many organizations are finding it easier to achieve their goals by using flexible workers and teams. Flexible workers can be transferred between departments and functions as demand changes. The advantages of flexible workers include quick response to environmental changes; reduced boredom and increased incentives for quality; better understanding by learning one another’s tasks; and combining tasks to increase efficiency and reduce costs. A flexible work team is a group of workers who assume responsibility for performing all the operations necessary for completing a specified stage in the manufacturing process. A flexible work team is self-managed; members jointly assign tasks and transfer from one task to another. In a flexible work team, separate teams assemble different components and turn those components over to the final-product work team, which assembles the final product. Each team’s activities are driven by demands that have their origins in customer demands for the final product. (Refer to Figure 10. 3) Developments in Revolutionary Change: Reengineering The term â€Å"reengineering† has been used to refer to the process by which managers redesign how tasks are bundled into roles and functions to improve organizational effectiveness. It involves rethinking business processes, activities that cross functional boundaries. Instead of focusing on an organization’s functions in isolation from one another, managers make business processes the focus of attention. A business process is an activity that cuts across functional boundaries and is vital to the quick delivery of goods and services or that promotes high quality or low costs. Because reengineering focuses on business processes and not functions, an organization must rethink the way it approaches organizing its activities. A good example of how to use reengineering to increase functional integration comes from attempts to redesign the materials management function to improve its effectiveness. In the traditional functional design the three main components of materials management—purchasing, production control, and distribution—were typically in separate functions and had little to do with one another. Thus coordinating their activities is difficult. Each function has its own hierarchy, and there are problems in both vertical and horizontal communication. Today, most organizations put all three of the functional activities involved in the materials management process inside one function. Three guidelines for performing reengineering successfully are as follows: Organize around outcomes, not tasks. 2. Have those who use the output of the process perform the process. 3. Decentralize decision making to the point where the decision is made. Reengineering and TQM are highly interrelated and complementary. E-Engineering This is a term used to refer to companies’ attempts to use all kinds of information systems to improve performance. The importance of e-engineering is increasing as it changes the way a company organizes its value-creation functions and links them to improve its performance. Restructuring Restructuring is a process by which managers change task and authority relationships and redesign organizational structure and culture to improve organizational effectiveness. Downsizing is the process by which managers streamline the organizational hierarchy and lay off managers and workers to reduce bureaucratic costs. The drive to decrease bureaucratic costs results from competitive pressures. Mergers and acquisitions in many industries, such as banking, have led to downsizing because fewer managers are needed. Other companies have reduced staff to match competitors. The negative effects of downsizing include overworked managers and lost opportunities. Companies that fail to control growth must downsize to remain competitive. The terms anorexic or hollow are used to refer to organizations that downsized too much and have too few managers to help them grow when conditions change. Restructuring, like other change strategies, generates resistance to change. Often, the decision to downsize requires the establishment of new task and role relationships. Because this change may threaten the jobs of some workers, they resist the changes taking place. Innovation Innovation refers to the process by which organizations use their skills and resources to develop new goods and services or to develop new production and operating systems so they can better respond to the needs of their customers. 10. 4 Managing Change: Action Research In Lewin’s view, implementing change is a three-step process: (1) unfreezing the organization from its present state, (2) making the change, and (3) refreezing the organization in the new, desired state so its members do not revert to their previous work attitudes and role behavior. Action research is a strategy for generating and acquiring knowledge that managers can use to define an organization’s desired future state and to plan a change program that allows the organization to reach that state. Figure 10. 6 highlights the steps in action research. Diagnosis of the Organization The first step in action research requires managers to recognize the existence of a problem that needs to be solved and acknowledge that some type of change is needed to solve it. In general, recognition of the need for change arises because somebody in the organization perceives a gap between desired performance and actual performance. Determining the Desired Future State This step also involves a difficult planning process as managers work out various alternative courses of action that could move the organization to where they would like it to be and determine what type of change to implement. Implementing Action 1. First, managers identify possible impediments to change at all levels. The second step is deciding who will be responsible for actually making the changes and controlling the change process. The choices are to employ either external change agents or internal change agents or use some combination of both. 3. The third step is deciding which specific change strategy will most effectively unfreeze, change, and refreeze the organization. The types of change that these techniques give rise to fall into two categories: Top-down change is implemented by managers at a high level in the organization, knowing that the change will reverberate at all organizational levels. Bottom-up change is implemented by employees at low levels in the organization that gradually rises until it is felt throughout the organization. Evaluating the Action The fourth step in action research is evaluating the action that has been taken and assessing the degree to which the changes have accomplished the desired objectives. The best way to evaluate the change process is to develop measures or criteria that allow managers to assess whether the organization has reached its desired objectives. Institutionalizing Action Research Organizations need to institutionalize action research—that is, make it a required habit or a norm adopted by every member of an organization. The institutionalization of action research is as necessary at the top of the organization as it is on the shop floor. Managerial Implications Managers must develop criteria to evaluate whether a change is necessary, and carefully design a plan that minimizes resistance. 10. 5 Organizational Development Organizational development (OD) is a series of techniques and methods that managers can use in their action research program to increase the adaptability of their organization. The goal of OD is to improve organizational effectiveness and to help people in organizations reach their potential and realize their goals and objectives. OD Techniques to Deal with Resistance to Change Education and Communication: One impediment to change is that participants are uncertain about what is going to happen. Through education and communication, internal and external agents of change can provide organizational members with information about the change and how it will affect them. Participation and Empowerment: Inviting workers to participate in the change process is a popular method of reducing resistance to change. Participation complements empowerment, increases workers’ involvement in decision making, and gives them greater autonomy to change work procedures to improve organizational performance. These are key elements of most TQM programs. People that are involved in the change and decision-making process are more likely to embrace rather than resist. Facilitation: Both managers and workers find change stressful. There are several ways in which organizations can help their members to manage stress: providing them with training to help them learn how to perform new tasks, providing them with time off from work to recuperate from the stressful effects of change, or even giving senior members sabbaticals. Bargaining and Negotiation: Bargaining and negotiation are important tools that help managers manage conflict. Because change causes conflict, bargaining is an important tool in overcoming resistance to change. Manipulation: Sometimes senior managers need to intervene, as politics shows that powerful managers have considerable ability to resist change. Coercion: The ultimate way to eliminate resistance to change is to coerce the key players into accepting change and threaten dire consequences if they choose to resist. The disadvantage is that it can leave people angry and disenchanted and can make the refreezing process difficult. OD Techniques to Promote Change Counseling, Sensitivity Training, and Process Consultation: Recognizing that each individual is different also requires them to be treated or managed differently. Sometimes, counseling will help individuals understand that their own perceptions of a situation may be incorrect. Sensitivity training is an OD technique that consists of intense counseling in which group members, aided by a facilitator, learn how others perceive them and may learn how to deal more sensitively with others. Process consultation is an OD technique in which a facilitator works closely with a manager on the job to help the manager improve his or her interactions with other group members. Team building is an OD technique in which a facilitator first observes the interactions of group members and then helps them become aware of ways to improve their work interactions. The goal of team building is to improve group processes to achieve process gains and reduce process losses that are occurring because of shirking and freeriding. Intergroup training is an OD technique that uses team building to improve the work interactions of different functions or divisions. Its goal is to improve organizational performance by focusing on a function’s or division’s joint activities and output. Organizational mirroring is an OD technique in which a facilitator helps two interdependent groups explore their perceptions and relations in order to improve their work interactions. This technique is designed to get both interdependent groups to see the perspective of the other side. Appreciating others’ perspectives allows the groups to work together more effectively. Total Organizational Interventions: A variety of OD techniques can be used at the organization level to promote organization-wide change. Organizational confrontation meeting is an OD technique that brings together all of the managers of an organization at a meeting to confront the issue of whether the organization is meeting its goals effectively.

The Identifying Factor Of Azotobacter

The Identifying Factor Of Azotobacter It is all too easy to forget about the soil microorganisms that are so crucial to the health of the flora and fauna of an ecosystem. When speaking of soil microorganisms, this classification can be further broken down into three subcategories: fungi, protista and bacteria, with bacteria making up the largest portion of the microorganisms (Boyle et al., 2007, Pelczar et al. 1993). These soil microorganisms play a central role to the biogeochemical cycling of nutrients such as, Nitrogen, Phosphorus and Sulphur; elements which are detrimental for the growth and life of organisms (Bastida et al., 2007). In addition to their role in nutrient cycling, soil microorganisms largely contribute to soil structures by breaking down and decomposing organic matters, and are also an important food source for other organisms such as earth worms and amoebae (Bastida et al., 2007). Considering the impact of soil microorganisms on the environment and ecosystem, it is easy to see how soil microorganisms also impact human lifestyle and economy. In recent times, a flood of research has been conducted on the importance of microorganisms on agriculture, with interests in the ability of nitrogen fixing bacteria to substitute for nitrogenous fertilizers (Cakmacki et al. 2006). This lab focused on the bacterial portion of soil microorganisms, specifically, the isolation and identification of a single bacterium from a local soil sample using a number of aseptic laboratory techniques and Bergeys Manual of Systemic Bacteriology (1984). Materials and Methods The following methods were taken from the Biology 203 Lab Manual (Robertson 2008). Two soil samples were taken, the first from forest soil and the second, a coarse woody debris, from compost. These two samples were serially diluted to make solutions from 10E-2 to 10E-7, and from each sample pour plates, slants, streak plates and broths were inoculated using aseptic technique. The colony morphologies were observed and recorded and each plate was enumerated. From these samples 4 bacteria were chosen and subcultured onto streak plates and slants. After preparing and Gram Staining the slides the cell morphologies of the bacteria were observed and noted. The colonies were again subcultured onto streak plates and tested for the ability to hydrolyze starch by adding Iodine. The colonies were also cultured into Sulfide, Indole and Motility (SIM) deeps to test for the presences of the Sulfur cycle and motility. In addition Peptone broths were inoculated and the cultures were tested for ammoni fication. Ammonium sulfate broths and nitrite broths were inoculated and nitrification was tested for as well denitrification was tested for by inoculating nitrate broths. Aerobic respiration was confirmed when catalase tests were carried out by adding H2O2 to a sample of bacterium. Finally cultures were individually exposed to each of several different temperatures, salinities and levels of pH in order to determine their optimal environmental conditions. A single colony of bacteria was chosen to be identified: bacteria 1 from soil sample 2. Results The colony morphology can be described as a glistening opaque white color with a flat and irregular shape. The growth was smooth and soft. The diameter of the colony approximated 15mm. Under 1000x magnification it was revealed that the cells were bacilli, singlet and had a diameter of approximately 2ÃŽ ¼m. The cells stained Gram negative. Table 1: Summary of Results for Unidentified Bacterium 1 of Soil Sample 2 Test Result Starch Hydrolysis Positive H2S reduction Negative Motility Negative Aerobic or Anaerobic Aerobic Ammonification Positive Denitrification (NO3- to NO2-) Negative Nitrification (NH3/NH4+ to NO2-) Positive Nitrification (NH3/NH4+ to NO3-) Positive Catalase Positive Optimal temperature 22Â °C Optimal pH 5 Optimal salt concentration 0% The results of the remainder of the tests biochemical and environmental are summarized by Table 1. It was concluded based on the Iodine and starch reaction that this bacterium hydrolyzed starch as a source of Carbon. The Sulfur cycle did not occur as there was no black precipitate from the combination of Iron and hydrogen sulfide found in the SIM deeps. The SIM deeps did reveal that these bacteria were non-motile, growing only on the stab line. The proteins in the peptone broth were degraded to ammonia signifying that this bacterium is an ammonifer. Nitrification was also confirmed with the bacteria oxidizing the NH3 and NH4+ in the broths to NO2- and NO3. Denitrification however, did not occur; NO3 was not reduced. The addition of H2O2 led to bubbling as it reacted with catalase present in the cells. Optimal environmental conditions were found to be 22Â °C, pH of 5 and 0% salinity. Between the temperatures of 4, 15, 22 and 54Â °C, growth was strongest at 22Â °C, then 15 and wea kest at 37 and 4Â °C . Growth at pH was only slightly stronger than at pH 7 but substantially stronger than at pH 3 and 9 (refer to table 2). Growth in salinity was best at 0% and decreased with .05%, 2% and 5% respectively. Table 2: Growth of bacterium 1 at various pH based on absorbance levels at 580nm pH Bacterial Growth 3 .227 5 .692 7 .510 9 .147 Discussion Each of these steps aided in the possible identification of the bacterium as Azobacteraceae Azotobacter a genera of bacteria found in soil, water and roots (Bergeys Manual, 1984). Due to the thinner layer of peptidoglycan surrounded by a phospholipid outer membrane as opposed to a thick external layer of peptidoglycan this bacterium stained Gram negative (Prescot, Harley and Klein 2005). Of vital importance for identification was the presence of catalase, an enzyme present in aerobic bacteria that breaks down the toxic byproduct of electron transport: H2O2 (Wang et al. 2008). The search to identify Bacterium 1 began with these two broad criteria: Gram negative and aerobic respiration. This particular bacterium was non-motile, the bacterium grew only along the stab line in the SIM deep rather than spreading throughout the medium. This turned out to be an important factor while identifying as it as Azotobacter which contains both motile and non-motile bacteria (Bergeys Manual, 1984). T hese three qualities alone pointed in the direction of Azotobacter; the biochemical and environmental tests served to confirm that Bacterium 1 was indeed Azotobacter by matching the characteristics of this particular genera to the bacterium. Nitrification was a common characteristic between the two and was confirmed to occur in Bacterium 1 when the ammonia broth was oxidized to nitrite and nitrite was oxidized to nitrate (Bergeys Manual, 1984). Denitrification however, did not occur the nitrate was left intact and un-reduced. Ammonification, the breakdown of nitrogen containing compounds to ammonia, was also a common characteristic of Bacterium 1 and Azotobacter (Bergeys Manual, 1984, Roberts, 2008). Although the test for motility in the SIM deep was positive, the sulfur cycle test in the SIM had a negative result. The sulfur containing compounds were not reduced by the bacterium to produce H2S and, this result even as a negative, was an important factor in identification because Azotobacter also does not reduce sulfur (Bergeys Manual, 1984, Roberts, 2008). Bergeys Manual (1984) classifies Azotobacter as a heterotroph and, similarly Bacterium 1 was identified as a heterotroph when Iodine was added to the streak plate con taining starch and no color change occurred in the area under and around the colony. This was an indication of the bacterium breaking down and metabolizing the starch. Finally, the optimal environmental conditions of both Bacterium 1 and Azotobactera were found to be very similar. The optimal conditions were stated as: pH of 4.8 8.5, temperature of 15 37ËÅ ¡C and low salinity (Bergeys Manual, 1984). Bacterium 1 had very similar environmental conditions of: pH of 5, 22ËÅ ¡C and salinity of 0% NaCl. Considering the nitrifying and ammonifiying qualities of the Azotobacter, this bacterium plays an important role in the nitrogen cycle by breaking down proteins and converting the nitrogen into a form that can then be used by other organisms (Butenschoen, Marhan and Scheu, 2007, Cakmakci et al. 2006). Azotobacter, as one of the more common nitrifying soil microbes, is known to produce a great amount of usable Nitrogen, and therefore is closely linked to plant growth and health (Cakmakci et al. 2006, Prescot, Harley and Klein 2005). Interestingly, although many nitrifying organisms hold a symbiotic relationship with plant roots, providing Nitrogen in exchange for nutrients, Azotobacter, in particular, does not (Prescot, Harley and Klein 2005). Azotobacter also carries out starch hydrolysis, and therefore aids in the decomposition of organic matter in soil and the mineralization process (Smith and Smith, 2001). The identification of Bacterium 1 as Azobacteraceae Azotobacter is not definite and several other tests would have required in order to prove this statement as true. One test which would have been very helpful would have been a test for cyst formation; a key characteristic of the Azotobacter (Bergeys Manual, 1984, Prescot, Harley and Klein 2005). The Azotobacter are not rhizobacteria and therefore it would have been appropriate if there were some way of observing the bacteria in their natural habitat. In addition, the tests that were carried out had limitations to the amount of information that could have been gleaned from the results. The nitrification, ammonification, and denitrification tests were based on a simple color change, and there was no way of telling the process by which these functions, if present, occurred, nor were the tests specific to the concentration of the compounds present. All of these tests and techniques could also have been subjected to error, for example, m easurement errors under the microscope, errors in serial dilutions and even, contamination of cultures. From a simple compost soil sample it was possible to isolate and subculture a single bacterium species. Using various biochemical tests such as, tests for nitrification, ammonification, denitrification and the sulfur cycle, it was possible to determine the characteristic metabolic functions of the organism. These results, in addition to observation of cell and colony morphology, especially Gram staining, enabled the identification of the bacterium as Azobacteraceae Azotobacter.

The Psychology Of Team Sports

The Psychology Of Team Sports Hardy and Grace, (1997) outlined the importance of team building research in sport when they suggested whether a team is successful or not is frequently attributed to the effectiveness of their teamwork. To develop the effective team many team building programs attempt to increase cohesion amongst a group as team cohesion can affect performance (Eys et al, 2005). Different areas of group dynamics can be used to increase team cohesion, this section of the report will focus on the research conducted on leadership, role ambiguity and goal setting. Leadership is an important component for developing cohesion in sports teams (Carron et al, 2005). It has been suggested that effective leadership is a vital contributor to member satisfaction (Reimer Chellandurai, 1995). Leadership behaviours and styles adopted can have a big impact on team cohesion and subsequent performance. (Carron et al. 2005) An early study, investigating the relationship between (the coaches) leadership behaviours and team cohesion within sports teams, found adopting a democratic style produced higher levels of task cohesion (Lee et al. 1993). In addition, a variety of studies reported that an increase in social support behaviour increased task cohesion (Lee et al. 1993, Westre Weiss, 1991; Riemar Chellandurai, 1995). One study, Riemar Chellandurai, (1995) went further and examined the leadership behaviours preferred and perceived by players depending on their position. They found defensive athletes perceived and preferred higher levels of social support and democratic and autocratic styles then the offensive athletes. They also found member satisfaction was greatly influenced by social support. More recent research has tended to focus on the role of the athlete as a leader within the team, for example, the captain. Research has suggested athlete leaders are in fact better than coaches at administering leadership behaviours, such as; a democratic decision making style and social support (Loughead and Hardy, 2005). Whats more, further research has been conducted to assess different types of athlete leadership. For example, Loughead et al, (2006) discovered two types of leader within a sports team; a team captain and a peer leader (supplies leadership to at least 2 team members). In addition, Eys et al, (2007) investigated how 218 athletes perceived the athlete leader distributions within their sports teams. Their results suggest that members of a team are more satisfied when 3 leadership roles (social, task, external) are performed to the same extent regardless of how many are leaders present within the team. Carron et al, (2005) identified individual clarification of role responsibilities to be one of the most important factors in sport. The vast majority of research on role states in team sports has been on role ambiguity (role clarity) and its relation to performance using the conceptual model proposed by Beauchamp et al, (2002). The effect role ambiguity had on both task cohesion and task self efficacy was investigated by Eys Carron (2001). They concluded that members within basketball teams who were unsure of their role responsibilities, reported lower levels of attraction towards the team and felt their team was less unified in their task approach. Another study, Eys et al, (2003) demonstrated that team members perceptions of role ambiguity decreased throughout a competitive season. Additionally, although perceptions of role ambiguity are individual, members of a team could share the same beliefs. Finally, new editions to the team are more likely to perceive role ambiguity compared to experienced members of the team at the start of the season. Nevertheless, as the authors suggested, the results of this study will be difficult to apply to other team sport settings (e.g age group, competitive standards) as it was undertaken on a homogeneous population (Eys et al, 2003). It has also been reported that greater role ambiguity and role clarity could affect an athletes self efficacy, satisfaction and performance. These factors could not only affect the individual but the team as a whole (Forsyth, 1999). Beauchamp Bray (2001) investigated university athletes perceptions of role ambiguity and role conflict among their respective sports teams. Results demonstrated that members who perceived greater levels of role ambiguity and conflict had lower levels of efficacy and were less inclined to perform their role responsibilities. This is concurrent with Bandura, (1997) who suggested a decrease in persistence and effort will occur if the athlete is unclear of their role. The associated performance is also likely to suffer (Bandura, 1997) as indicated by Beauchamp et al, (2002) who found a negative relationship between role efficacy and role performance. Additionally, the relationship between leadership and role ambiguity could prove further understanding of thi s subject (Eys et al, 2003). The more detailed, specific and challenging yet realistic a goal is the more effective it will be (Gould, 1993). However, research found team members often set themselves unclear and generally descriptive goals (Brawley et al, 1992). In addition, when Dawson et al, (2002) interviewed varsity athletes to determine their goal setting habits, they found team members set personal goals and their respective teams had group goals. Research has indicated that team as opposed to individual goals are better for improving team sport performance (Johnson et al, 1997). The authors demonstrated how subjects who set team goals improved their bowling performance in cricket, yet subjects who set personal goals did not. The addition of team goals to a group has proven successful in the past. Lee (1988) found that adding team goals to female hockey teams had a positive effect on team performance. This was concurrent with Senecal et als, (2008) study of female basketball players. Over a season long intervention, they found team cohesion significantly increased in the intervention group compared to the control groups when they utilised team goal setting. Furthermore, Mellalieu et al. (2006) found a goal setting program with professional rugby players to have a positive impact on performance. It has been suggested that goal setting can enhance team cohesion by providing a team focus (Widemeyer Ducharme, 1997). Focusing on one goal can improve group communication, commitment and satisfaction, improving group cohesion and subsequent performance (Carron Spink, 1993) Nevertheless, there have not been many studies carried out in sport that have investigated the effect of team goals on team performance (Widemeyer Ducharme, 1997), with the majority of studies conducted outside of the sport setting (Weingart, 1992). Team building intervention A team goal setting program was chosen as the intervention topic to improve team cohesion (see appendix a). Early research from Widemeyer et al, (1992), as cited in Widemeyer Ducharme (1997) found athletes felt having a team goal was the most significant contributor to task cohesion from a choice of 35 variables. More recently, Stevens Bloom (2003) found team goals to be the most effective topic to utilise in a team building intervention. The following team building intervention applied principles from Eys et al, (2006) in Senecal et al. (2008), Widemeyer Ducharme, (1997) and Widemyer McGuire, (1996) in Carron et al, (2005). Step 1: Developing Long term goals Firstly, the athletes and coaches will work together to decide the long term goal of the team (Kyllo Landers, 1995) for example, achieve a top 3 position in the league. This will take place during an all day workshop during the first week of pre season. The athletes will work in small sub groups of 3-4 and discuss long team goals for the team (Eys et al, 2005). Once the sub groups have decided a long term goal, the coach will write the goals on the white board and the team will discuss together (Dale Wrisberg, 1996), narrowing down to one specific and measurable goal (Gould, 1993). The Long term goal will then be posted in the changing rooms for the remainder of the season, to help motivate the athletes (Weldon Weingart, 1988). Step 2: developing short term outcome goals To achieve the long term goal, specific and measurable (Carron et al, 2005) short term goals will be set as stepping stones (Kingston Hardy, 1997), for example, win the next 3 out of 5 games. To decide the goals, the coach will remind the players of last seasons statistics (eg. Wins, losses, league position) (Widemeyer Ducharme, 1997). After the long term goals are decided, the players will use these statistics and repeat the same procedure as in step 1 by getting into subgroups (Eys et al, 2005). Once discussed, 5-6 specific and achievable short term outcome goals will be decided (Widemeyer Mcguire, 1996) Step 3: Developing short term performance goals In addition, the players will set performance goals during a second all day workshop, 2 weeks into the pre season. The use of multiple goal setting strategies has been shown to be more beneficial to performance (Filby et al, 1999). For this intervention, the players will only be working towards team goals as previous research has suggested team goals are better for improving team performance (Johnson et al, 1997) and that individually hidden goals have no significant impact on performance (Kyllo Landers, 1995). The performance goals will be decided through the use of performance profiling (Dale Wrisberg, 1996). This will be a group profile for the team as a whole. Firstly, the players will discuss what characteristics they believe a successful football team has. The players will express their opinions to the coach while they write them down onto a white board. The characteristics will need to be specific, so if there too general they will be re-evaluated until clearer. When the athletes and coach are happy that at least ten appropriate characteristics are on the white board, the players will individually and anonymously write all the characteristics off the white board on to paper. Examples of characteristics could be; putting 100% effort into every training session and game, winning over 80% of their aerial battles. The players will then proceed to evaluate their teams characteristics between a scale of 1-10, with 1 being weak and 10 being strong. Once completed, each characteristic will be calculated as a mean. The lowest mean scores will be the areas developed into performance goals that the team will aim to achieve. Additionally, the coach will use the same procedure to demonstrate their perceptions of the team. At the next group meeting the team will discuss the results (lowest scores) and agree on 5-6 performance goals to improve their perceived weaknesses (Dale Wrisberg, 1996). When the specific performances goals are established, the team needs to decide realistic yet challenging target levels for these goals (eg. more than 5 shots on target per game) (Carron et al, 2005). To make sure their realistic and challenging the coach will again provide the athletes with statistics from last season (eg. shots on goal, tackles won). The sub group procedure used in step 1 and 2 will be utilized to achieve this (Eys et al, 2005). After negotiations the team will conclude the appropriate targets for their team. This process will be repeated during the middle and the end point of the competitive calendar (Dale Wrisberg, 1996) so that the performance goals can be updated throughout the season Step 4: Monitoring and evaluation of short and long term goals The Long and short term goals will be continually monitored throughout the intervention. Prior to every match and practice session (1 of each per week) throughout the pre and competitive season the team will be reminded of the goals they set for themselves in attempt to provide a focus for the team and help motivate the players (Weldon Weingart, 1988). To do this team goals will be written on the white board in the changing rooms, the coach will then highlight the importance of these goals during their team talk. In addition, after each match team statistics (eg. goals scored and corners won in that game) and the statistics for the agreed performance indices will be posted in the changing rooms. The team members can then look at the statistics and measure their progress towards their target levels. Step 5: Updating team goals After every 3-5 games, the coach and players will work with the intervention specialist on evaluating and possibly updating the team goals if needed, eg. Removing or adding performance goals and changing the target level (Senecal et al, 2008). This will be achieved using their performance statistics from the previous 3-5 games and the characteristics of their next 3-5 opponents (Widemeyer McGuire, 1996). Again, the procedure demonstrated in step 1 will be used to administer the changes. Stage 6: Praise continued progress toward team goals During the intervention the coach will continually openly praise his team when they do well and progress toward their team goals, feedback on goal progress may enhance the use of team goals (Widemeyer Ducharme, 1997). Step 7: post intervention check. 1 week after the intervention was completed; A 5 question, post intervention questionnaire (Stevens Bloom, 2002) was completed by every player to assess the effectiveness of the intervention (Senecal et al, 2008). In addition, 1 and 3 months after the intervention is completed interviews will be conducted with each player (Stevens Bloom, 2003). Players will be instructed to relax and openly discuss their opinions of the TBIs effectiveness. Critical analysis of team building interventions in sport Team building interventions are designed to improve group performance by increasing group cohesiveness (Carron et al, 1997). However previous studies have produced mixed results on the effectiveness of team building interventions (TBI) on improving cohesion. Some were effective (Voight Callaghan, 2001; Senecal et al, 2008; McClure Foster 1991; Mellalieu et al, 2006) and some were unsuccessful (Prapavessis et al, 1996; Cogan Petrie, 1996; Stevens Bloom, 2002). One study, Steven Bloom (2003) found their TBI to be effective during the pre season but not throughout the competitive season. Nevertheless, Brawley Paskevich (1997) have highlighted many methodological concerns with the research conducted using team building interventions. For example, the pre-test, post-test experimental design employed by various TBI (Voight Callaghan 2001: Senecal et al, 2008; Prapevessis et al, 1996; Stevens Bloom, 2002; Mellalieu et al, 2006) makes it difficult to determine the effectiveness of the intervention. Although three of these studies were effective (Voight Callaghan 2001: Senecal et al, 2008; Mellalieu et al, 2006), due to the absence of measures throughout the competitive season, although likely it makes it difficult to determine whether or not it was the TBI that improved performance or outside interference, questioning the validity of their results. For example, Brawley Paskevich, (1997) suggested leadership change; a less competitive calendar or the loss of an unsettling member could have all influenced team cohesion independent of the TBI. Some studies that employed a quasi experimental design (Cogan Petrie, 1996; Stevens Bloom, 2003) reported their TBI to be ineffective at improving team cohesion. The design could be the reason for their lack of significant results. A quasi experimental design rarely includes random assignment making it difficult to determine whether factors such as differences in coaching style and team atmosphere affected the results (Stevens Bloom, 2003). Randomly assigning members to different teams, allows experimenters to observe which treatment of the TBI infers change (Brawley Paskevich, 1997). One study employed an experimental design (Mclure Foster, 1991). The results of their study suggested their intervention was effective at increasing cohesion among gymnasts. The positive results of their study could be attributed to the experimental design as this method includes random assignment. Therefore they were able to notice a difference in cohesion amongst randomly assigned athletes with out interference from some of the problems mentioned above. Furthermore, some studies did not utilise a control group, one was effective at improving cohesion (Voight Callaghan 2001) another was ineffective (Bloom Stevens 2002). The absence of a control group however, questions the validity of Voight Callaghans (2001) results. As suggested by Brawley Paskevich, (1997) it is difficult to establish whether their TBI was actually the cause for the improvement in performance as there were no control or placebo groups to compare the results to. In addition, as Stevens Bloom (2002) did not include a control group, whether or not cohesion levels would have decreased over the season and therefore whether or not the intervention was helpful to the team is unclear. Additionally, the duration of the TBI is another methodological concern identified by Brawley Paskevich (1997). It has been suggested interventions are fairly slow processes (French Bell, 1984) and at least 1 season of a TBI is needed to produce results of any significance (Brawley Paskevich, 1997). Therefore the results of studies that lasted less than a season (Prapavessis et al, 1996; Mellalieu et al, 2006) may not portray the long-term effects of the intervention. Studies that have lasted at least a season (Senecal et al, 2008; Mclure Foster 1991; Stevens Bloom, 2002; Voight Callaghan, 2001; Stevens Bloom, 2003; Cogan Petrie, 1996) are more likely to provide clearer results. In addition, although the vast majority some of these studies administered post intervention checks (Cogan Petrie, 1996; Senecal et al, 2008; Mellalieu et al, 2006; Stevens Bloom; Voight Callaghan, 2001; Prapevessis et al, 1996; Stevens Bloom, 2002) none of these studies administered any questionn aires 3 or 6 months after the intervention to examine the long term effects of their intervention. Sampling size can be another methodological concern for researches conducting TBIs. Two studies had a very small sample size (Mellalieu et al, 2006: 5 participants; McClure Foster, 1991:15 participants. Some studies have only used a slightly larger sized sample consisting of no more than 45 participants (Cogan Petrie, 1996; Voight Callaghan, 2001; Stevens Bloom, 2003; Stevens Bloom, 2002). Only 2 studies have used relatively large sample sizes: Senecal et al, (2008); (n=86) Prappevessis et al, (1996); (n=137). Nevertheless, all studies have reported sufficient details such as gender, age, sport and team ability (Cogan Petrie, 1996; Voight Callaghan, 2001; Stevens Bloom, 2003; Stevens Bloom, 2002; McClure Foster, 1991; Mellalieu et al, 2006; Senecal et al, 2008; Prapavessis et al, 1996) However, some of the characteristics reported in the studies can be vague. Many studies have failed to state appropriate details, such as race (Voight Callaghan, 2001; Prapevessis et al, 199 6; Senecal et al, 2008; McClure Foster, 1991; Stevens Bloom, 2002; Mellalieu et al, 2006). Furthermore, the majority of studies also seem to be generalized to similar populations. For example, the majority of studies were conducted on females (Voight Callaghan, 2001; Senecal et al, 2008; McClure Foster, 1991; Cogan Petrie, 1996; Steven Bloom, 2003; Stevens Bloom, 2002), on ages ranging between 18-24 (Voight Callaghan, 2001; McClure Foster, 1991; Cogan Petrie, 1996; Steven Bloom, 2003; Mellalieu et al, 2006) and on high school or university teams (Cogan Petrie, 1996; Steven Bloom, 2003; McClure Foster, 1991; Senecal et al, 2008). In addition, the studies that indicated the race of the subjects were predominately on Caucasians (Cogan Petrie, 1996; Steven Bloom, 2003). As these studies are on similar populations the generalizability of these interventions is limited. Therefore, the results are difficult to apply to a wide range of sports teams, as member characteristics s uch as age, gender, race and ability can vary greatly per team. Previous studies on sport teams have had the coach/manager as the main facilitator of the intervention, working with the intervention specialist. As a result, Some TBIs have taken a more indirect approach (Prappevessis et al, 1996) or used a combination of indirect and direct models (Steven Bloom, 2003; Cogan Petrie, 1996; Mellalieu et al, 2006). However, Brawley Paskevich (1997) identified indirect models to have weaknesses. The authors explain that coaches/managers may not be capable of undertaking a TBI as they do not have the knowledge, time and commitment to make it successful. On the other hand, direct models have the advantage of often allowing the intervention specialist to work directly with the participants. In addition, the team members become more involved in the decision making process during the intervention. Bloom, (1996), suggested the involvement of the athletes is a key factor in improving team performance. From the four studies reviewed that utilised a direct te am building model, 3 were effective at improving cohesion (Senecal et al, 2008; Voight Callaghan 2001; McClure Foster, 1991) with only one unsuccessful (Stevens Bloom, 2003). References Bandura, A. (1997). Self-efficacy: The exercise of control. New York: Freeman. Beauchamp, M. R., Bray, S. R. (2001). â€Å"Role ambiguity and role conflict within interdependent teams†. Small Group Research, 32, 133-157. Beauchamp, M. R., Bray, S. R., Eys, M. A.,Carron, A. V. (2002). â€Å"Role ambiguity, role efficacy, and role performance: Multidimensional and mediational relationships within interdependent sport teams†. Group Dynamics: Theory, Research, and Practice, 6, 229-242. Bloom, G. A. (1996). Life at the top: Philosophies of success. In J. H. Salmela (Ed.), Great job coach! Getting the edge from proven winners (pp. 37-65). Ottawa, ON: Potentium. Bloom, G.A. and Stevens, D.E. (2002). â€Å"Case study: A team-building mental skills training program with an intercollegiate Equestrian Team†. Athletic Insight 4, The Online Journal of Sport Psychology Brawley, L.R., Carron, A.V. Widmeyer, W.N. (1992). â€Å"The nature of group goals in sport teams: A phenomenological approach†. The Sport Psychologist, 6, pp323-333. Carron, A.V., Spink, K.S. (1993). Team building in an exercise setting. The Sport Psychologist, 7, 8-18. Carron, A.V., Spink, K.S., Prapavessis, H. (1997). â€Å"Team building and cohesiveness in the sport and exercise setting: Use of indirect interventions†. Journal of Applied Sport Psychology, 9, pp61-72. Carron, A.V. and Hausenblas, H. A., Eys, M.(2005). Group dynamics in sport. Morgantown, WV: Fitness Information Technology. Cogan, K.D. and Petrie, T.A. (1996). â€Å"Sport consultation: An evaluation of a season-long intervention with female collegiate gymnasts†. The Sport Psychologist, 9, pp282-296. Dale, G.A. Wrisberg,, C.A. (1996). â€Å"The use of a performance profiling technique in a team setting; Getting the athletes and coach on the same page†. The Sport Psychologist, 10, pp261-277. Dawson, K. A., Bray, S. R., Widemeyer, W. N. (2002) â€Å"Goal setting by female intercollegiate sport teams and athletes, Avante, 8, pp14-23 Eys, M. A., Carron, A. V. (2001). â€Å"Role ambiguity, task cohesion, and task self-efficacy. Small Group Research, 32, 356-373. Eys, M. A., Carron, A. V., Beauchamp, M. R., Bray, S. R. (2003). â€Å"Role ambiguity in sport teams†. Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 25(4), 534-550. Forsyth, D. R. (1999). Group dynamics (3rd ed.). Belmont, CA: Wadsworth Eys, M, A., Patterson, M. M., Loughead, T. M., Carron , A. V. (2005) â€Å"Team building in sport†. In Hackfort, D., Duda, J. L., Lidor, R., Handbook of Research in Applied Sport Psychology: International Perspectives (pp219-233). Morgantown, WV: Fitness Information Technology Eys, M. A., Loughead, T. M., Hardy, J. (2007) â€Å"Athlete leadership dispersion and satisfaction in interactive sport teams†, Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 8, pp281-296 Filby, W. C., Maynard, I. W., Graydon, J. K. (1999) â€Å"The effect of multiple goal strategies on performance outcomes in training and competition. Journal of Applied Sport Psychology, 11, pp230-246 French, W.D. Bell. C.H. (1984). Organization development: Behavioural science interventions for organization improvement (3rd Ed). Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Rentice-Hall. Gould, D. (1993). Goal setting for peak performance (2nd ed.).Mountain View, CA: Mayfield Publishing Company Johnson, S. R. Ostrow, A. C., Perna, F. M., Etzel, E, F. (1997) â€Å"The effects of group versus individual goal setting on bowling performance. The Sport Psychologist, 11, pp190-200. Kingston Hardy (1997). â€Å"Effect of different types of goals on processes that support performance†. The Sport Psychologist, 11, pp277 293. Kyllo, L. B., Landers, D. M. (1995) â€Å"Goal setting in sport and exercise: A research synthesis to resolve the controversy†. Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 17, pp117-137 Lee, C. (1988). â€Å"The relationship between goal setting, self-efficacy, and female field hockey team performance†. International Journal of Sport Psychology, 20, pp147- I61 Lee, H. K., Kim, B.H., Lim, B. H.(1993) â€Å"The influence of structural characteristics of team success in sports†, Korean Journal of Sport Science, 5, pp138-154 Loughead, T. M., Hardy, J. (2005). A comparison of coach and peer leader behaviours in sport. Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 6, 303-312. Loughead, T. M., Hardy, J., Eys, M. A. (2006). The nature of athlete leadership. Journal of Sport Behaviour, 29, 142-158. McClure, B. Foster, C.D. (1991). â€Å"Groupwork as a method of promoting cohesiveness within a womens gymnastics team†. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 73, pp307-313. Mellalieu, S.D., Hanton, S., OBrien, M. (2006). The effects of goal setting on rugby performance. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 39, pp259 261. Prapavessis, H., Carron, A.V. Spink, K.S. (1996). â€Å"Team building in sport†. International Journal of Sport Psychology, 27, pp269-285. Riemar, H.A. Chelladurai, P. (1995). Leadership and satisfaction in athletes†. Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 17, pp276-293. Senecal, J., Loughead, T.M. Bloom, G.A. (2008). â€Å"A season-long team-building intervention: Examining the effect of team goal setting on cohesion†. Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 30, pp186 199. Stevens, D.E., Bloom, G.A. (2003). â€Å"The effect of team building on cohesion†. Avante, 9, pp43-54. Voight, M. and Callaghan, J. (2001). â€Å"A team building intervention programme: Application and evaluation with two university soccer teams†. Journal of Sport Behaviour, 24 ,pp420 431. Weldon, E.. Weingart. L.R. (1988). â€Å"A theory of group goals and group performance†. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the Academy of Management. Anaheim, CA. Weingart. L.R. (1992). Impact of group goals, task component complexity, effort, and planning on group performance. Journal of Applied Psychology, 77. 682-693. Westre, K. R. And Weiss, M. R., (1991) â€Å"The relationship between perceived coaching behaviours and group cohesion in high school football teams†, Sport psychologist, 5, pp41-54 Widmeyer. W.N., Silva. J.M. Hardy, C.J. (1992). â€Å"The nature of group cohesion in sport reams: A Phenomenological approach†. Paper presented at the annual meeting Of the Association for the Advancement of Applied Sport Psychology. Colorado Springs, CO. Widemeyer, W. N., McGuire, E, G. (1996) Sport psychology for ice hockey. Presentation to Ontario Intermediate Coaching Clinic, Waterloo; Ontario Widmeyer, W.N. DuCharme, K. (1997). â€Å"Team building through team goal setting†. Journal of Applied Sport Psychology, 9, pp97-113.

The Ute Indians :: essays research papers

The Ute Indians The Ute Indians were a group of Indians that lived mostly around the mountainous area of Utah and Colorado near the Colorado River. But they sometimes lived in dessert areas also. The word Ute comes from the word eutaw or yuta which means dwellers on the top of mountains. Although it is not certain where they originated but it is assumed that they arrived to the Colorado and Utah area around 1000 A.D. The Ute Indians spoke a part of the Uto-Aztecan language called Numic. The Utes were divided into bands or a subdivision of a tribe. There were at one time eleven different bands of Ute Indians. The type of housing in each band depended on the material available. They lived in teepees, lodges, and domed shaped structures. The lodge shaped structure was the Ute's traditional mean of shelter. These home were temporary because the Utes moved every season to hunt. The dome shelters were built out of willow branches over a pole frame. They were eight feet high and fifteen feet in diameter. They usually built their homes on a river or stream valley and were scattered to take advantage of wood, shade and other resources. In the winter they moved into lower elevations for the milder weather there.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Children were very important in the Ute Indian tribe. Every member was responsible for caring and the education of the youth. Babies were held in cradle boards that were either made of willow branches bundled together or a solid piece of wood. Willow bark was often used as diapers. Babies were cared for by girls nine and up. The babies were delivered in a special shelter that was set aside for giving birth. During the birth the mother is usually assisted by another female tribe member. The husband was expected to help the wife by keeping her warm by bringing lots of firewood. The umbilical cord was cut off with a stone knife. When the remaining part fell off the mother always saved it in a special pouch that was attached to the babies cradle board. When the baby learned to walk the mother placed the umbilical cord on a red ant hill. They thought that would help the ants industrious ways to rub off. The children were given many names and nicknames in their life. These names were given to them during various occasions during their life, like when they were born and when they learned how to walk. The children were educated by watching and helping their elders.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Everything that the Ute needed could be found in their territory.

Analysis of Jane Austens Pride and Prejudice Essay -- Jane Austen Pri

Analysis of Jane Austen's Pride and Prejudice Pride and prejudice is a novel set in the late 17th Century and was written by author Jane Austen. The novel is based upon the theme of marriage and social settings of the 17th century. The novel is set in an era where women where 2nd class citizens and were inferior to men. This is ever so prevalent in the novel. In the time of which the novel is set women were not meant to meddle in men’s affairs theses included involving in politics, participating in financial affairs this disabled the women to be independent. This did not allow women to play a greater role in society, in fact women were supposed to â€Å"bore birth and bring up and look after the children†. This was there only role society which was dominated my men. A women’s objective in life would’ve been to look for a wealthy husband who may not have necessarily have loved her. This would enable the women to have a secure future. The first line of Pride and Prujudice sums this up â€Å"It is a truth universally acknowledged, that a single man in possession of a good fortune must be in want of a wife† The problems which arise in â€Å"Pride and Prejudice† are that Mr Bennet has five daughters and no sons. This may be the reason why Mrs Bennet is obsessed with getting her daughters married. â€Å"A single man of large fortune; four or five thousand a year. What a fine thing for our girls!† Mrs Bennet always mentions the amount the possible candidate earns a year this shows that the financial aspect is vitally important as it ensures there daughters future security. Because Mr Bennet has only daughters there will be inheritance given to the daughters as there are not male but will be give to the closest relat... ...sal. Lastly both of the men are shocked to realize that Elizabeth rejects their proposals. The Character Elizabeth is a strong, free thinking women in the novel, and does not believe in the traditional ways of doing things. She believes that a person should marry for love, which was recognized at the time at which the novel is set. I think the Jane Austen’s opinions are portrayed in her characters as a means of displaying that traditions some times are wrong. Elizabeth has characteristics of feminism. This shows that Jane Austen was ahead of her time, because she believed that women could be free thinking and independent and still live a good life. This is portrayed in her characters as Elizabeth eventually is loved by Darcy for who she is even though Darcy recognizes the fact that Lady Catherine De Bourgh will take it upon insult him Marrying her.

Opening Paragraphs for a “Heroes” Essay

A hero is defined as a man of distinguished courage or ability, admired for his brave deeds and noble qualities. People desire someone to admire at certain times to help lead and guide them. The many paths of life help to shape heroes. They can be found anywhere from a police officer to a football player. Everyday people will look for them for inspiration for themselves. Heroes push us to strive for more out of life while also helping us through tough times.Heroes are very important to our way of life and shape our view of life. People need heroes for three reasons: devastation, tragedy and losses. The devastation of an event can cause a person to need a hero, someone to look to for answers. When a person encounters a tragedy, they also try to look to someone as a solution for their problems. People encounter losses everyday and each day they seek guidance. In each of the above situations, persons yearn for a hero. Certain events in our life can have profound effects on us.A lot of t ime, it is from devastating events. Devastating events can be extremely disappointing and heart wrenching. Battling our way out of these events can truly show the heart of a person. Heroes shine in times such as these. They battle through the hardest of adversity and win. These adversities can range from the simple to the momentous. When devastation occurs, persons are in a hole, looking for a way out and find their shining hero at the end to help save them.This is where the heroes come in making for a great ending and promising future. Heroes in this situation are made through experience and knowledge of how hard such devastation can be. People then look to them to see how they got through it and can follow their example. When a disappointment occurs, persons need to know that there is hope, hope knowing that someone else overcame the same obstacle. We all encounter devastations but tragedies are encountered less often.

Fairy Tales Essay

Fairy tales are often considered to be for children. However an analysis of the collection of stories by the Brothers Grimm shows that they all have message to deliver, even to young adults. In today’s rat race, young adults often forget the importance of little things that we learnt as children. Everyone knows what morals are, however theoretically. People today, are always in a great hurry. More often than not when someone’s in trouble, they would do anything to get out of the situation. Under such circumstances people make false promises. The story of the Frog King touches upon this aspect of human behavior. The princess promises the frog that all his demands will be met if he retrieves her golden ball. However on receiving the ball, she blissfully forgets her promise and runs away without the frog. However, when the frog turns up at her door, she has to fulfill her promise at her father’s insistence. This story highlights the fact that promises are meant to be kept and not broken. It emphasizes the point that people should learn to honor their word, for a promise breeds trust and trust should never be broken. Young adults also put too much by store on the appearance of things. This many a times proves to be a booby trap, as expectations are rarely met in such circumstances. This aspect is touched upon in both the stories, the Frog King and Hansel and Gretel. In the latter, the brother and sister are in awe of the candy house and trust the old woman to be nice. It’s only a little later that they realize the witch’s wicked intentions. Their false judgment of the witch on the basis of the house she lived in put their life in danger. In the Frog King the princess was reluctant to fulfill her promises because she found the frog repulsive, who later turned out to be a handsome prince. The stories teach us that not everything thing that glitters is gold and that we should never judge a book by its cover. Fairy tales enthrall not only ones imagination, they also serve the purpose of delivering important messages. The subtlety with which the message is delivered is plausible. The use of metaphors is most common in the fairy tales of the Brothers Grimm. The style in which the message is delivered is both entertaining and instructive. In the story of Little   Red Cap, the message that people who commit evil deeds can never escape their fate is beautifully stated by the following statement –‘They filled the wolf’s body with them, and when he woke up and tried to run away, the stones were so heavy that he fell down dead.’ This states that one’s evil deeds weigh down upon him/her and become the cause of their death in the end. This line uses a beautiful metaphorical sentence to convey the message, where the stones are the evil deeds committed. In the story flowers and emotional attachment are shown as distractions that steer people away from their path. The wolf realizes that Little Red Cap greatly lover her grandmother and in order to delay her distracted her with the beautiful flowers she could take for her grandmother. Greed can never be satiated and always leads to something unwanted are stated in the story of Rapunzel. The object of greed in the story is the rampion that Rapunzel’s mother craves for. Despite her husband satisfying her cravings once she wants more. This ultimately leads to her losing her daughter in a bargain to the wicked witch. To summarize, the stories of the Brother Grimm use beautiful imagery and metaphors to deliver yet important messages that many seem to forget in a hurry.